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Hardware

All the elements that go together to make up a PC fall into one of two categories, hardware or software. This section is about hardware, the stuff upon which software runs.

One of the definitions of 'hardware' according to Webster's dictionary is 'major items of equipment or their components used for a particular purpose'.

Everything you can see and touch in your PC is hardware. Complete PCs can be purchased for about $300 today, and the prices keep falling! All the items listed below that make up a PC can be purchased individually at computer or web supply stores.

This following list represents a basic set of hardware found in most PCs.
For more information on these components 

1.PC Case:-
The PC case is a thin sheet metal enclosure that houses the motherboard, power supply and various drives (HDD, FDD, CD, DVD).

• Cases are offered in two styles, desktop and tower. Today the tower type is predominant. It stands upright and is much taller than it is wide. It is usually placed on the floor next to, or under a desk. The desktop has a pizza box profile and usually sits on the desktop.
  
  
• Tower cases are offered in two basic sizes, one that can fit ATX (12" wide) motherboards and one that can accommodate ATX mini (8.5" wide) motherboards. The number of drive bays offered also varies depending on manufacturer.
  
  
• The motherboard and power supply mount to the floor at the rear of the case. The drives (hard, floppy and CD/DVD) mount in enclosures called drive bays at the front of the case.
  
  
• Cases run from $20 to $70 depending on size (ATX or ATX mini), number of drive bays and the wattage of the power supply.

2.Motherboard:-
The motherboard is the main circuit board in a PC. It contains all the circuits and components that run the PC.

Major Components found on the motherboard are:

• CPU - the Central Processing Unit is often an Intel Pentium or Celeron processor. It is the heart of every PC. All scheduling, computation and control occurs here.
  
  
• BIOS - Basic Input Output System is a non-volatile memory that contains configuration information about the PC. It contains all the code required for the CPU to communicate with the keyboard, mouse video display, disk drives and communications devices.
  
  When a PC is powered on it uses the BIOS 'boot code' to set up many required functions that bring the PC to a point where it is ready to work.
  
  
• RTC - the Real Time Clock chip keeps date, day and time in a 24 hour format just like your watch. The PC uses this clock to 'time stamp' files as they are created and modified. When you print a file it time stamps the pages as they are printed.
  
  
• Chip Set - these are large chip(s) that integrate many functions that used to be found in separate smaller chips on the motherboard. They save space and cost.
  
  The functions performed by these chip sets often broken into two devices with one providing an interface from the CPU to the memory and the other providing controllers for IDE, ISA, PCI and USB devices (see below).
  
  

Primary Connectors found on the motherboard are:

• Power - A 20 pin connector accepts a plug from the power supply. This plug carry DC power to all the circuits on the motherboard.
  
  
• Keyboard - A Mini-din 6-pin (round) connector found at the back of the motherboard is where the keyboard plugs in.
  
  
• Mouse - A Mini-din 6-pin connector found next to the keyboard connector is where the where the mouse plugs in.
  
  
• Display - This connector is not integrated into the motherboard but is included in this list since its function is absolutely necessary. It is a 15-pin, D-shell type connector found on a video card that plugs into the AGP connector of the motherboard (see below).
  
  
• IDE - stands for Integrated Drive Electronics. These are 40 pin connectors that provide a place to connect the ribbon cables from the drives (hard and CD/DVD). All data between the motherboard and the drives is carried in these cables. They are not accessible unless the PC cover is removed.
  
  
• FDD connector - it is similar in function to the IDE connector. It is a 34 pin ribbon connector that carries data between the motherboard and any floppy drive installed in the PC. Not accessible with PC cover on.
  
  
• DRAM - Dynamic Random Access Memory connectors for SIMM and DIMM type memory modules. Not accessible with chassis cover on.
  
  
• Serial Connectors
  
  
  • Standard Serial Connector - This connector has been around in PCs since they first appeared. It was originally located on ISA expansion type cards (see below). Today it is an integral part of newer motherboards. It is a 9- pin, D-shell connector that allows you to connect external devices with serial ports to your PC. The maximum data rate is 115 KB/s.
    
    
  • USB - Universal Serial Bus This is a relatively new serial bus. Originally specified as low speed, 1.2 Mb/s, it was enhanced to full speed, 12Mb/s. The latest version 2.0 is specified as high speed, 400 MB/s.
    
    Someday USB will completely replace the standard serial connector that has been the workhorse serial port in earlier PCs. USB is now a standard connector on all new motherboards.
    
    Unlike serial and parallel ports, the USB port is designed to power devices connected to it. The devices must be low power devices and must be able to reduce their current draw to less than 0.5uAmps when commanded to do so by the PC.
    
    
• Parallel Connectors
  
  
  • Centronix or Standard Parallel - This connector has been around in PCs since they first appeared. It has 37-pins and is now integrated on new motherboards. It is usually used to connect your printer to the PC and moves data at about 1MB/s.
    
    
  • SCSI - Small Computer System Interface moves data at a maximum of up to 80Mb/s. It not integrated into most PC motherboards. It can be added to a PC as an Expansion card (see below). Some printers and hard disk drives use SCSI interfaces.
    
    
• Expansion Card Connectors - The CPU connects to expansion card connectors through one of the chip set ICs mentioned above. They are located on the motherboard near the rear of the PC. These connectors allow special function cards to plug into and work with the PC.
  
  Before motherboards integrated the serial and centronix connectors they were found on expansion boards that plugged into ISA slots.
  
  Most PCs have the following expansion connector types:
  
  
  • ISA - Industry Standard Architecture connectors have been around since 1980 and first appeared in the IBM XT PC. This type of slot still appears on some newer motherboards so that older expansion boards can still be used. However, many motherboards no longer have ISA connectors on them.
    
    
  • PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect is a newer and faster interface that accepts all expansion cards that have a PCI interface.
    
    
  • AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port is a connector that is designed to work with video cards. Your video display plugs into and is controlled by one of these video cards. Many modern video cards offer enhanced 3D-graphics and fast, full motion video.
  3. Power Supply:-
• 
  
  • A power supply is installed in the back corner of the PC case, next to the motherboard.
    
    
  • It converts 120vac (standard house power) into DC voltages that are used by other components in the PC.
    
    
  • A 20 conductor cable carries +5vdc, -5vdc +12vdc, -12vdc and ground to the motherboard.
    
    
  • Another pair of cables, each with four conductors and two 4-pin connectors daisy-chained along it, carry +5vdc, +12vdc and ground to the drives (hard, floppy and CD/DVD).
    
    
  • Typical PC power supplies are rated at 200-250 watts and sell for about $50 - $75. Higher wattage supplies are available. 
  4. Hard Disk Drive:-
  
  
  • The HDD installs in one of the 3-1/2 inch internal drive bays in the PC. It is secured by machine screws.
    
    
  • It is powered by a 4 conductor cable coming from the power supply.
    
    
  • Data to and from the motherboard is carried on a 40-pin IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) cable.
    
    
  • Data is stored magnetically on multiple rigid disks that are stacked up like pancakes. Small arms with magnetic pickups move rapidly back and forth across the top and bottom surface of each disk in the drive. The sensors float just a few microns above the rotating disk surface and can read and write data at very high rates.
    
    
  • Most commercially available hard drives rotate at 5400 or 7200 RPM (revolutions per minute) which translates to 90 or 120 revolutions per second respectively. The data transfer rate from the drive to the motherboard is 33 Mbytes/second in bursts. Newer drives are capable of higher speeds up to 66 Mbytes/sec. To use this faster drive, the PC must have an ATA/66 interface that is capable of keeping up with it.
    
    
  • A 40 Gbyte HDD sells for about $100.
  5. Floppy Disk Drive:-
  
  
  • The FDD installs in one of the external drive bays at the front of the PC case and is secured by machine screws. External means you can access the drive from the outside.
    
    
  • It is powered by a cable with a 4-pin connector that comes from the power supply.
    
    
  • It transfers data to and from the motherboard by means of a 34 pin ribbon cable.
    
    
  • It stores data magnetically on a removable floppy disk. A pickup arm in the drive floats above the disk surface. The arm moves rapidly back and forth across the disk surface as a small magnetic sensor at the end of the arm reads and writes data on the rotating disk surface.
    
    
  • Floppy disks hold 1.44 Mbytes, which at one time was a large amount of data. Today many programs and files are much larger than this. In spite of being surpassed in size by CD and DVD, floppy drives are still found on many newer PCs.
    
    
  • They cost about $20-$25. 
  6. Compact Disk Drive:-
  
  
  • The CDD installs in one of the external 5-1/4 inch drive bays in the front of the PC case. It is secured by machine screws. Some manufacturers offer special rail-like systems that mount on the CDD. These allow the drive to be removed from the PC without having to remove any screws.
    
    
  • Data is stored optically on the surface of the disk. A laser attached to an arm that moves back and forth across near the disk surface and sends light toward the disk surface which is coated with of a thin layer of aluminum.
    
    
  • Smooth areas called a lands reflect the light back to a photo diode located near the laser. The reflected light is read as a 1. Areas called pits are where the aluminum has been removed. When the laser light hits these, it is scattered and very little is picked up by the photo diode. The absence of light is read as a 0.
    
    
  • CDD have become the predominant removable storage media for PCs and can store 700 Mbytes of data.
    
    
  • A 4-pin cable from the power supply plugs into the CDD and provides power to it.
    
    
  • Data to and from the motherboard is carried on a 40-pin IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) cable.
    
    
  • There are two types of Compact Disk drives available for PCs.
    
    
    1. CD-ROM (read only memory) is the older type. As the title implies it can only read CDs. It can read any standard CD and most CD-R type disks. It may be able to read some types of CD-RW disks too. A 24x CD-ROM unit costs about $30.
       
       
    2. CD-RW (ReWritable)units can read and write CD-R and CD-RW type disks. It can also read standard CD type disks.
       A 24x10x40 CD-RW unit costs about $115. The 24x10x40 means the unit can write at 24x, re-write at 10x and read at 40x, where x is 150Kbytes/sec. 
    7. Digital Video Disk drive:-
    
    
    
    1. DVD also known as the Digital Versatile Disk drive, installs in one of the external 5 1/4 inch drive bays in the PC. It is secured by machine screws. Some manufacturers offer special rail-like systems that mount on the DVD. These allow the drive to be removed from the PC without having to remove screws.
       
       
    2. It is designed to optically access data stored on a DVD. A laser moves back and forth near the disk surface and accesses data at a very fast rate.
       
       
    3. A 4-pin cable from the power supply plugs into the CDD and provides power to it.
       
       
    4. Data between the DVD drive and the motherboard is carried on a 40-pin IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) cable.
       
       
    5. There are two types of DVD drives that typically go into PCs.
       
       
       • DVD-ROM (Read Only Memory) can read DVDs and CDs and costs about $75.
         
         
       • DVD-RAM (Random Access Memory) units can read and write DVDs. They can also read CDs and cost about $500.
       
       
       
    6. A standard DVD stores up to 4.7 Gbytes on one side of the disk. Digitally formatted movies can be stored on a standard DVD in MPEG-2 format.
       
    
    8. Monitor:-
    
    CRT Monitors
    
    
    
    • Up until recently, CRTs (Cathode RayTubes) were the only type of displays for use with desktop PCs. They are relatively big (14" to 16" deep) and heavy (over 15 lbs).
      
      
    • They are available in screen sizes from 14" to 21". A 17" display means that it is 17" measured diagonally from one corner of the tube to the other. The actual viewing area is smaller than 17" (about 16") since the electron gun can't sweep completely to the tube edge.
      
      
    • CRTs send a stream of electrons at the screen, which is charged to about 25,000 volts. As they strike it they cause phosphor on the backside of the screen to glow creating light which you see. The electron stream is sweep back and forth and up and down at about 60 sweeps per second and turned off and on at the right time to make text and graphics images appear.
      
      
    • They are powered by standard 120Vac wall power.
      
      
    • Data is transferred to the display on a cable with a 15-pin D-shell connector that plugs into a connector on the video card which in turn plugs into one of the PC's expansion slots.
      
      
    • A 17" monitor with 1280 x 1024 resolution and .27mm dot pitch sells for around $150.
    
    LCD Monitors
    
    
    • Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) technology has been used in laptops for some time. It has recently been made commercially available as monitors for desktop PCs.
      
      
    • LCDs have no electron gun and are therefore not very deep like CRTs. The text and images you see are created by a back light behind the panel, that shines through pixels (picture elements). Each pixel is made up of three chambers red, green and blue. The chambers in each pixel must be opened enough and in the proper proportion to produce the correct brightness and color.
      
      
    • For an LCD to provide a screen resolution 1024 x 768 pixels (SVGA), it must have 786,432 (1024 x 768) pixels. In TFT (Thin Film Transistor) type LCDs, each pixel is controlled by a tiny transistor that opens and closes the chambers in each pixel.
      
      
    • Desk top LCD displays are powered by standard 120Vac wall power.
      
      
    • Data is transferred to the display on a cable with a 15-pin connector that plugs into a mating connector on the video card seated in an expansion slot in the PC.
      
      
    • A 17" LCD monitor with 1280 x 1024 resolution and .27mm dot pitch sells for around $500. 
    9. Keyboard:-
    
    
    
    • The keyboard was the first input device developed for the PC.
      
      
    • The standard keyboard layout provides 104 keys organized as four groups:
      
      
      • alphanumeric keys (A-Z, 0-9)
        
      • location keys (home, end etc.)
        
      • numeric keypad
        
      • function keys (F1-F12)
      
      
    • In addition to the standard keys, some keyboards offer functions such as volume control for speakers, web browser functions and power management.
      
      
    • Data is transferred to the PC over a short cable with a circular 6-pin Mini-din connector that plugs into the back of the motherboard.
      
      
    • Standard keyboards sell for $7 to $30 depending on the feature set.
      
      
    • There are wireless keyboards that communicate with a pod that is plugged into the keyboard port. Radio Frequency (RF) or InfraRed (IR) technology is used to communicate between the keyboard and the receiver pod, which plugs into the PC. Wireless keyboards are priced in the $40 to $45 range.
      
      
    • Cherry Hill Inc. is releasing a keyboard that has an integrated Finger Tip sensor. Instead of having to type in passwords to access the PC a successful fingerprint match allows entry in to the PC or specific programs. 
    10. Mouse:-
    
    The mouse is the most common 'pointing device' used in PCs. Every mouse has two buttons and most have one or two scroll wheels.
    
    
    
    • By default the left button is used to select items. The right button is assigned as a context or alternate menu. A single wheel is normally set to scroll up and down on the active page . If a second wheel is present, it is usually assigned to scroll left and right on the page.
      
      
    • The button functions can be reassigned by going to Control Panel > Mouse > Buttons tab.
      
      
    • Data is transferred to the PC over a short cable with a circular 6-pin Mini-din connector that plugs into the back of the motherboard. This type of mouse sells for $10 to $25 depending on the style, button and wheel configuration.
      
      
    • Some versions of the mouse are wireless. They communicate with a receiver pod that is plugs into the mouse port. Radio Frequency (RF) or InfraRed (IR) technology is used for communication between the mouse and the pod. These sell in the $30 to $45 range.
    
    There are two designs used in a mouse for detecting motion:
    
    Track ball
    This type of mouse uses a rolling (track) ball. As the mouse moves the ball rolls. The rolling motion is converted electronically into matching movements of the mouse pointer that moves across your video display.
    The track ball mouse is rapidly becoming another casualty of rapidly changing technology. The optical mouse has pretty much replaced it. The track ball mouse is already becoming a thing of the past.
    
    Optical
    This mouse uses an InfraRed transmitter/receiver pair to optically detect the motion of the mouse. It has a number of advantages over the track ball mouse:
    • No mouse pad is required.
    • Can work on any flat surface
    • No rolling track ball that collects and transfers dirt to the internal rollers, making them slip. When they do, your mouse pointer jumps around in an unpredictable and annoying way!
    
    See the Easy Tips section of this web site for an explanation on how to clean a track ball mouse.
    11.Audio:-
    
    
    
    • Speakers and headphones are the primary audio output devices for a PC.
      
      
    • Some monitors have speakers built into their sides. Other speakers are free standing.
      
      
    • Passive speakers plug into and are powered directly from the output signal provided by the 'speaker out' port on the sound card.
      
      
    • Active speakers amplify the sound signal from the sound card using battery or rectified AC house power. 
    12. Cables and Wires:-
    
    
    
    • Although these are not the most sophisticated part of the system, they are just as important as any other component.
      
      
    • All the components in a PC are connected together and to power with wires and cables.
      
      
    • Ninety percent of all electronics problems (including PCs) are the result of poor connections.
      
      
    • If you have a PC problem, it is always a good idea to first check that all the cables on your PC are plugged in and properly seated.
     
    
    
     
     
        
    
   
    
  

  

The Complete FAT32 Guide

How do I create a Windows shortcut key?

Question

How do I create a Windows shortcut key?

Answer

Create a shortcut

1. Open the folder or directory that contains the program you wish to create a shortcut for.
2. Right-click on the program and click Create Shortcut.
3. This will create a shortcut named "Shortcut to <your program>" in the directory you are in. If you wish to rename this shortcut, right-click the file and click rename.
4. Once the above steps have been completed, you can copy or cut this shortcut and paste it anywhere to execute this program.

Assign shortcut key to that Windows shortcut
Once the shortcut has been created to assign a shortcut key to that Windows shortcut follow the below steps.

1. Right-click the shortcut and click Properties.
2. Click the Shortcut tab.
3. Click in the Shortcut key box and press a letter. For example, if you press "p" the shortcut key will automatically be made Ctrl + Alt + P. Which means if saved when pressing Ctrl and Alt and "P" all at the same time will run that shortcut.

Additional information

• How do I create a Windows shortcut?
• Create a shortcut key for Internet web pages.
• See the shortcut key definition for further information and related links.

Basic PC shortcut keys

Shortcut Keys	Description
Alt + F	File menu options in current program.
Alt + E	Edit options in current program
F1	Universal Help in almost every Windows program.
Ctrl + A	Select all text.
Ctrl + X	Cut selected item.
Shift + Del	Cut selected item.
Ctrl + C	Copy selected item.
Ctrl + Ins	Copy selected item
Ctrl + V	Paste
Shift + Ins	Paste
Home	Goes to beginning of current line.
Ctrl + Home	Goes to beginning of document.
End	Goes to end of current line.
Ctrl + End	Goes to end of document.
Shift + Home	Highlights from current position to beginning of line.
Shift + End	Highlights from current position to end of line.
Ctrl + Left arrow	Moves one word to the left at a time.
Ctrl + Right arrow	Moves one word to the right at a time.

Microsoft FrontPage shortcut keys

Shortcut Keys	Description
Ctrl + C	Copy selected text.
Ctrl + X	Cut selected text.
Ctrl + P	Paste selected text.
Ctrl + K	Create a hyperlink.
Ctrl + B	Bold highlighted selection.
Ctrl + I	Italic highlighted selection.
Ctrl + U	Underline highlighted selection.
Ctrl + L	Left align the text.
Ctrl + R	Right align the text.
Ctrl + E	Center the text.
Ctrl + /	Turn on or off the display of HTML tags.
Ctrl + S	Save document.
Ctrl + Tab	Switch between open web pages.
Ctrl + Ins	Enter Line break.
Ctrl + Enter	Move cursor above or below a table.
Ctrl + Shift + B	Preview in web browser window.
Ctrl + Shift + <	Decrease font size.
Ctrl + Shift + >	Increase font size.
Ctrl + Del	Deletes word to right of cursor.
Ctrl + Backspace	Deletes word to left of cursor.
Alt + mouse double-click	View the properties of a selected item. For example, doing this on a table cell would display the properties for that cell.

Microsoft DOS History

Year	Event
1981	Microsoft buys the rights for QDOS from Seattle Computer Products (SCP) for $25,000 on July 27, 1981.
1981	MS-DOS 1.0 was released August, 1981.
1982	MS-DOS 1.25 was released August, 1982.
1983	MS-DOS 2.0 was released March, 1983.
1984	Microsoft introduces MS-DOS 3.0 for the IBM PC AT and MS-DOS 3.1 for networks.
1986	MS-DOS 3.2 was released April, 1986.
1987	MS-DOS 3.3 was released April, 1987.
1988	MS-DOS 4.0 was released July, 1988.
1988	MS-DOS 4.01 was released November, 1988.
1991	MS-DOS 5.0 was released June, 1991.
1993	MS-DOS 6.0 was released August, 1993.
1993	MS-DOS 6.2 was released November, 1993
1994	MS-DOS 6.21 was released March, 1994
1994	MS-DOS 6.22 was released April, 1994

Microsoft DOS and command prompt

About MS-DOS

Short for Microsoft Disk operating system, MS-DOS is a non-graphical command line operating system created for IBM compatible computers that was first introduced by Microsoft in August 1981 and was last updated in 1994 when MS-DOS 6.22 was released. Although the MS-DOS operating system is not commonly used today, the command shell more commonly known as the Windows command line is still used and recommended. Continue reading >>

If you're new to MS-DOS or the Windows command line we suggest reading how to use the Windows command line (DOS).

MS-DOS command list

See the complete overview for a brief description on each of the below commands.
Browse by type: Internal commands, External commands, and Recovery console commands.

A	ansi.sys | append | arp | assign | assoc | at | atmadm | attrib
B	backup | batch | bootcfg | break
C	cacls | call | cd | chcp | chdir | chdsk | chkntfs | choice | cipher | cls | cmd | color | command | comp | compact | control | convert | copy | ctty
D	date | debug | defrag | del | delete | deltree | dir | disable | diskcomp | diskcopy | diskpart | doskey | dosshell | driveparm
E	echo | edit | edlin | emm386 | enable | endlocal | erase | exit | expand | extract
F	fasthelp | fc | fdisk | find | findstr | fixboot | fixmbr | for| forfiles | format | ftp | ftype
G	goto | gpupdate | graftabl
H	help | himem.sys | hostname
I	if | ifhlp.sys | ipconfig
J	None
K	keyb
L	label | lh | listsvc | loadfix | loadhigh | lock | logoff | logon
M	map | md | mem| mkdir | mode | more | move | msav | msbackup | msd | mscdex | mwbackup
N	nbtstat | net | netsh | netstat | nlsfunc | nslookup
O	None
P	path | pathping | pause | ping | popd | power | print | prompt | pushd
Q	qbasic
R	rd | reg | ren | rename | rmdir | robocopy | route | runas
S	scandisk | scanreg | set | setlocal | setver | sfc | share | shift | shutdown | smartdrv | sort | start | subst | switches | sys | systeminfo | systemroot
T	taskkill | tasklist | telnet | time | title | tracert | tree | tskill | type
U	undelete | unformat | unlock
V	ver | verify | vol
W	wmic
X	xcopy
Y	None
Z	None

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all computer solutions

Apple menu

Found on all Apple Macintosh computers, the Apple menu is a menu accessed by clicking on the Apple image found at the top-left of the screen. As shown in the picture to the right, the Apple menu allows users to change the settings or configuration of his or her computer or its peripherals. With earlier versions of the Mac, this image may have been a rainbow apple ().
Also see: Apple definitions, Menu bar, Operating system definitions, Start button

Apple menu

Found on all Apple Macintosh computers, the Apple menu is a menu accessed by clicking on the Apple image found at the top-left of the screen. As shown in the picture to the right, the Apple menu allows users to change the settings or configuration of his or her computer or its peripherals. With earlier versions of the Mac, this image may have been a rainbow apple ().

Also see: Apple definitions, Menu bar, Operating system definitions, Start button

Interapplication communications

1. Abbreviated as IAC and also known as an Apple Event, Interapplication communications is the method of how the Apple Macintosh and software programs on the Apple Macintosh communicate with one another.
2. IAC is also shorthand for In Any Case, IAC is an acronym used in chat rooms and message boards. Below is an example of how this could be user in chat.

IAC I really think you should still go see that movie.

Also see: Apple definitions

Apple DOS

The first operating system for the Apple computer primarily developed by Paul Laughton, Randy Wigginton, and Steve Wozniak for the Apple II series of computers. The first release of Apple DOS was Apple DOS 3.1 and was released in June 1978.

ADB

Short for Apple Desktop Bus, ADB is a low-speed serial bus that connects input devices such as a keyboard, mouse, and graphics tablets to an Apple Macintosh computers or other hardware equipment.
Also see: Apple definitions, Bus

Apple I

The Apple I (Apple 1) is the first Apple computer and originally sold for $666.66. The computer kit was developed by Steve Wozniak in 1976 and contained a 6502 8-bit processor and 4 kb of memory, which was expandable to 8 or 48 kb using expansion cards. Although the Apple I had a fully assembled circuit board the kit still required a power supply, display, keyboard, and case to be operational.

Apple Macintosh

A computer first introduced by Apple in 1984 with the now famous 1984 commercial shown on the Super bowl. The Apple Macintosh computer became popular with schools and many users because of the graphical user interface (GUI) that was easier for non-computer users to use as it did not require memorizing many commands like that on the PCs at the time using MS-DOS.

AIM

1. Short for AOL Instant Messenger, AIM is a widely used Instant Messenger program.
   
   The official AIM website can be found at: http://www.aim.com/
   
2. Short for Apple, IBM, and Motorola, AIM is the alliance that developed the PowerPC.

AAC

Short for Advanced Audio Coding, AAC is an audio codec that has better audio quality and compression when compared to the popular MP3 format. This is the default codec Apple iTunes uses when saving audio CDs to your computer.

Apple definitions

A

AAC AIM Apple Apple I Apple Desktop Bus Apple DOS Apple event Apple key Apple Menu Apple Macintosh Apple Touch Icon Apple Worldwide Developer conference AppleTalk Aqua

B

BOMB Bonjour Boot Camp

C

Caddy Closed architecture Command key

D

DDP Dirty ROM Dock

E

EtherTalk Extension

F

Finder

G

Currently no listings

H

Happy Mac

I

iDVD iLife iMac ImageWriter iMovie INIT iOS iPad iPhone iPhoto iPod iSight iTools iTunes

J

Currently no listings

K

Currently no listings

L

LaserWriter LocalTalk

M

Mac Mac Mini Mac OS X Menu bar MobileMe Mount

N

Currently no listings

O

Option key

P

PowerPC PRAM

Q

QuickTime

R

RAM cache

S

Sad Mac Safari SANE Spotlight SuperCard SuperDrive System System 7

T

Currently no listings

U

Currently no listings

V

Volume reference number

W

Currently no listings

X

XCFD XCFN

Y

Currently no listings

Z

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Mac

1. Originally known as iTools, .Mac is a group of online services from Apple computers that gives Apple Mac OS users a place to host their web page, e-mail, store files online, greeting cards, and a website review service. On June 09, 2008 Apple announced .Mac would be converted to MobileMe.
2. A file extension for MacPaint files.

About attrib

Attrib allows a user to change the properties of a specified file. Using attrib, the user has the capability of changing the file to have any of the below attributes. Note if you're wanting to change the ACL's of a file see the CACLS command.

Read-only - allowing the file to be only viewed and not written to.

Archived - allowing Microsoft backup and other backup programs to know what files to backup.

Hidden - making the file invisible to standard users.

System - making the file an important system file.

Availability

The attrib.exe command is an external command that is available in the below Microsoft operating systems.

MS-DOS 3.0 and above
Windows 95
Windows 98
Windows ME
Windows NT
Windows 2000
Windows XP
Windows Vista
Windows 7

Syntax

Microsoft Windows 95, 98, and ME syntax

Displays or changes file attributes.

ATTRIB [+R | -R] [+A | -A] [+S | -S] [+H | -H] [[drive:][path]filename] [/S]

+	Sets an attribute.
-	Clears an attribute.
R	Read-only file attribute.
A	Archive file attribute.
S	System file attribute.
H	Hidden file attribute.
/S	Processes files in all directories in the specified path.

Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows XP syntax

Displays or changes file attributes.

ATTRIB [+R | -R] [+A | -A ] [+S | -S] [+H | -H] [[drive:] [path] filename] [/S [/D]]

+	Sets an attribute.
-	Clears an attribute.
R	Read-only file attribute.
A	Archive file attribute.
S	System file attribute.
H	Hidden file attribute.
/S	Processes files in all directories in the specified path.
/D	Process folders as well.

Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows XP recovery console syntax

Note: The below options are the available options in the Windows recovery console.

Changes attributes on one file or directory.

ATTRIB -R | +R | -S | +S | -H | +H | -C | +C filename

+	Sets an attribute.
-	Clears an attribute.
R	Read-only file attribute.
S	System file attribute.
H	Hidden file attribute.
C	Compressed file attribute.

Examples

attrib

Typing attrib by itself will display all files in the current directory and each of their attributes. If any file is hidden it will also display those files.

attrib +r autoexec.bat

Add the read-only attribute to the autoexec.bat file so it cannot be modified until the read only attribute is taken off. This is helpful for important system files or any other file that you do not want to have mistakenly edited or changed by another program.

attrib +h config.sys

Add the hidden attribute to the config.sys file causing it to be not be seen by the average user.

attrib -h config.sys

This command will do the opposite of the above command. Instead of hiding the file it will unhide the file if hidden.

• How can I see hidden files in MS-DOS?

Extended information

DOS directory file attribute bit position and Hex Value with bit positions (7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0). See the file attributes computer dictionary definition for further information about file attributes.

Bit Positions	Hex	Description
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1	01h	Read Only file
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0	02h	Hidden file
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0	04h	System file
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0	08h	Volume Label
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0	10h	Subdirectory
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0	20h	Archive
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0	40h	Reserved
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0	80h	Reserved
Examples
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1	21h	Read Only, Archive
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0	32h	Hidden, Subdirectory, Archive
0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1	27h	Read Only, Hidden, Archive